A BRIEF HISTORY OF CATHOLIC SOCIAL TEACHING

A new perspective on Catholic social teaching

Introduction

Catholic social teaching has been one of the fundamental pillars of Western civilization. Public hospitals, publicly-funded education, shorter working hours, better wages and working conditions, labor unions, and associations of mutual support all have their roots in the social Gospel. Over the past half a century, catholic social teaching has been marginalized, especially in the richest countries, by the combined onslaught of the prosperity Gospel and the culture wars. The declining influence of catholic social teaching has been associated with a rapid increase in the concentration of income and wealth, the demise of labor unions, lagging wage growth, worsening working conditions, attacks on public financing of health care and programs supporting the poor and marginalized, the decline of civil discourse, and political polarization. In Western countries we need a revival of the social Gospel. To that end I have published a book entitled Catholicism and Capitalism that offers a novel perspective on catholic social teaching from its Old Testament roots to Pope Francis. A summary of this book is offered in the paper.

Biblical Roots

The roots of catholic social teaching extend far beyond the publication of Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum. Catholic social teaching has its foundation in the Gospels. Since Jesus was Jewish and explicitly accepted the word of God revealed to men in the Old Testament, we can affirm that the roots of catholic social teaching go far back in time. The foundations of catholic social teaching are found in the Mosaic Covenant which establishes a set of principles that reverberate in various writings throughout the centuries:

1.Man has the moral responsibility to take care of the natural world.

2. All natural resources belong to God. Man’s property rights are limited to the use of these resources and do not extend to their disposal.

3. The fruits of man’s property are not to be used exclusively by the owner, but must be shared with the poor (universal destination of goods).

4. Workers must be treated with dignity.

5. The accumulation of wealth is condemned. In fact, the Mosaic Covenant contains a number of provisions aimed at preventing wealth accumulation (the most significant being the forgiveness of debts in the jubilee year).

6. Man is commanded to lead a virtuous life by obeying faithfully God’s commandments. His rights are a fruit of the fulfillment of his responsibilities, as God blesses those who follow his commands.    

Some of the fundamental principles of the Mosaic Covenant are reaffirmed in the Gospels: the crucial role of work in human life, the dignified treatment of workers, the prompt payment for their labor, the dangers of coveting wealth, and the obligation to help not just the poor but anyone who asks. The Gospels emphasize particularly a Trinity of love as the driver of all human activity: love of God, love of friend and foe, and love of justice.  The Acts of the Apostles and the letters of Peter, James, and Paul present a picture of the early Church as a community of people who shared their possessions with all members of the community and stress the importance of showing our faith through good deeds. In addition, Paul gives priority to the community over personal interests and the common good over individual desires. 

Church Fathers

The Church Fathers (Saint Clement of Alexandria, Saint Basil, and Saint John Chrysostom) addressed the issues of the concentration of wealth, the display of conspicuous consumption, and the plight of the urban poor. Saint Clement addressed the question of wealth from the perspective of salvation. He considered material possessions as valuable resources for the satisfaction of human needs to be shared among all members of a community and interpreted Jesus’ command to sell one’s possessions in a figurative manner. For him, giving up wealth was a way of becoming a free person released from any attachment to material things. Saint Basil’s views of wealth and the rich are grounded on both the Old and the New Testament. Saint Basil believed that God had provided for all human needs in the Garden of Eden and even after the fall as evidenced by the Mosaic Covenant. Seeking more is ingratitude, an expression of raw greed. Saint Basil places wealth accumulation within the moral context of the New Testament by relating it to Jesus’ command to love one’s neighbor as oneself. Therefore, in addition to being a socially undesirable behavior contributing to poverty, it is a grave sin as it defies Jesus’ command to love one’s neighbor as oneself. The sin is not the desire for wealth or extravagant spending, but the lack of love that feeds greed and extravagance. Saint John Chrysostom focused on what he called luxurious living and excessive consumption. In his view, the rich are the steward of the poor and have the duty to take care of their needs before engaging in unnecessary expenditures. Consuming more than one’s needs is equivalent to being a thief that takes from the mouth of the poor what it is rightfully theirs.

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine argues that the foundation of any society is a life submitted to the will of God. Man is whole when, acknowledging God’s love, he loves God in return to the extent of his full capacity. If we love God and are obedient to His will, we will be in a loving relationship with ourselves and with our neighbor, and social justice will prevail. In the context of Augustine’s thought, social justice is the inevitable result of man’s love for God and for his neighbor; it is love in action. This means that the “social gospel” is not just a part of the Gospel, it is its entirety. Stripping the Gospels of their social content would leave largely a chronicle of three years in the life of a Galilean preacher and miracle worker who ended up being put to death by crucifixion under Roman rule.

Saint Francis of Assisi

Saint Francis of Assisi takes us back to the origins of the universe, transcending both his upbringing and the historical context of his life. His primary message is our kinship with nature. Man is neither nature’s Lord nor simply its caretaker. He is a kin to nature, because each of its elements is a brother or sister. Moreover, we are linked to nature by a bond of love because all creation came to life through the power of God’s love. Therefore, any failure to care for “mother earth” and for the environment is a breach of the first three commandments for a failure to care for God’s creation is a lack of love for God Himself.  

Saint Thomas Aquinas. Saint Thomas presents a view of human activity that is comprehensive and internally consistent. Created in God’s image, human beings behave in accordance with justice and charity for the purpose of promoting God’s plan on earth. In doing so, they give priority to social well-being over personal interests, give everyone what is rightly theirs, refuse to pursue riches because the accumulation of wealth is not conducive to happiness, ensure that every worker earns a living wage, are satisfied with the fulfillment of their needs in accordance with their status, and willingly share any surplus with those who are wanting. A society composed of virtuous people who practice steadfastly justice and charity will exhibit lower disparities of income and wealth, stronger social cohesion, greater overall well-being, more wholesome and resilient inter-personal relationships, lower degrees of criminal activity, and greater overall social harmony.

Pope Leo XIII

In his seminal encyclical Rerum Novarum, often treated as the beginning of catholic social teaching, Pope Leo addressed the economic conditions of workers in the 19^th century and the rising threat of socialism. His plan rested on two fundamental pillars under the guidance of the Church: private property, and the right of workers to earn a living wage through employment. According to the Pope, human beings are the only creatures with a soul that reflects God’s semblance. Therefore, they not only have a right to life but a natural right to a standard of living that promotes both physical and spiritual wellbeing. This goal is best achieved through the protection of private property, which allows workers, through thrift and virtuous behavior, to gain economic independence. For workers without property, the provision of a living wage and humane working conditions is best achieved through private institutions and organizations, chief among which are labor unions. In the Pope’s plan, the actions of individuals and associations will be guided by the Church which is the only body with the authority to address spiritual needs. In the Pope’s plan, the role of the State is largely confined to the promotion of private property, the protection of persons and property, and the establishment of a legal system that maintains peace and social order. Rerum Novarum does not assign any redistributional functions to the State, for such a function would move the State towards socialism. The task of improving the lot of workers would be performed by the ownership of private property and by the assistance of various private organizations, primarily labor unions, and the plight of the poor would be alleviated by the generosity of fellow men guided by the Church, acting according to the Gospels, and driven by Christian charity.       

Pope Pius XI

Pope Pius, through his encyclical Quadragesimo Anno, addressed the economic and social malaise associated with the Great Depression, within the framework of Pope Leo XIII’s pathbreaking encyclical Rerum Novarum. He starts by identifying the ills of the time, and particularly the poor economic conditions of workers. Then he condemns the prevailing forms of economic and social organization. Communism is found wanting primarily because it destroys personal freedom by usurping the right to private property. The new socialism contains elements of catholic social teaching, but its exclusive focus on material wellbeing ignores the spiritual needs of human beings, degrades their relationship with God, and negates the ultimate goal of life, which is not temporal pleasure but eternal happiness. The Pope reserves his harshest criticism to Liberalism. In his view, individualism, which forms the behavioral foundation of liberalism, has led to immoderate greed, unbounded desire for wealth, disregard for the natural needs of others, abuse of workers’ rights, the weakening of economic and social institutions, the fragmentation of the social order, and moral decay. The Pope’s plan for restoring economic and social order rests on three fundamental pillars: the widespread ownership of private property, the right to work and to earn a living wage, and moral regeneration. While the other forms of economic organization focus only on the material side of life, the Pope considers the whole person, not in isolation but as an integral member of society, for whose wellbeing he cares as much as for his own. Private property and work are the Pope’s preferred instruments for ensuring that all workers and their families can enjoy a comfortable living standard according to their social status and have the capacity to satisfy both their material and spiritual needs as beings created in the image of God. Pope Pius XI attributes the economic malaise, institutional malfunctions, and social disorder to the evils of greed, lust, and envy. In his view, no policy remedies have a chance of success unless these evils are eliminated. For him, the only solution is a reform of morals rooted in the Gospels and the teachings of the Church. To that end, he proposes the active involvement of clergy and religious institutions and organizations, not only directly but also in raising an army of soldiers of Christ. 

Pope John Paul II

In the first of his two social encyclicals, entitled Laborem Exercens, Pope John Paul reaffirms the main principles advocated by Popes Leo XIII and Pius XI, but departs from traditional Church teaching in a variety of ways. In particular, his approach to catholic social teaching is too anthropocentric, too individualistic, and focused excessively on economic growth. Aside from Saint Francis and, as we shall see later, Pope Francis, the social Gospel makes little or no reference to environmental issues. Pope John Paul II seems to go a step further. He places man at the center of the universe and treats earth as an object to be subdued and dominated. Not only is the entire natural world at the disposal of man to satisfy his needs, but man gains his identity by the act of sub-doing which, according to the Pope, is commanded by God. The focus of man as the center of all creation leads also to an overly individualistic approach to work and life. Leo XIII and Pius XI stressed a dual purpose of work: to satisfy the needs of the worker and his family, and to promote the common good. For John Paul II, the primary purpose of work is the self-realization of man. Both Rerum Novarum and Quadragesimo Anno are replete with references to the common good and the well-being of society. References to these terms are rarely found in Laborem Exercens. Anthropocentrism and individualism are associated with the Pope’s emphasis on economic growth, which would lead to high employment levels, a main objective of his labor policy. This policy, however, is placed outside the framework of the underlying economic system, an approach opposite that of Leo XIII and Pius XI. The former expressed strong criticism of communism while the latter reserved his strongest criticism for liberalism. John Paul II refrains from attacking the prevalent economic systems in the world. In doing so, he fails to recognize that the very foundations of his proposed labor policy, anthropocentrism and individualism, are forces that drive an economic system which, focusing on economic growth, generates most of the injustices: widening inequality of income and wealth, economic fluctuations, the demise of labor unions, and the exploitation of unprotected labor. 

In his second social encyclical, entitled Centesimus Annus, Pope John Paul reinterprets Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum in light of the post-war economic, political, and social developments and the events associated with the demise of the Soviet Union. While re-affirming the main principles contained in Rerum Novarum, Pope John Paul II introduces some novel interpretations of catholic social teaching. In particular, he expands on the anthropocentrism of Laborem Exercens, based on man’s dominion over nature, by stressing the centrality of man’s fulfillment of his innate ability. Moreover, despite his claim that the Church offers general directions rather than specific policies, in Centesimus Annus he shows a bias in favor of capitalism by presenting a complete program for a conservative agenda which includes moral support for a market economy that is creating greater economic injustice; a small government whose role is largely confined to the protection of persons and property and the promotion of economic activity, and greater emphasis on “cultural” issues such as drug use and abortion than on income inequality and poverty. This reinterpretation of Rerum Novarum provided fodder for intellectuals, especially in the United States, to recast the social teachings of the Church in a more capitalist-friendly frame. Coupled with the replacement of the social gospel with the prosperity gospel by other Christian denominations, this shift in the interpretation of catholic social teaching has led to a Christianity driven by greed which finds its purpose in fighting cultural wars rather than loving one’s neighbor and caring for the poor and marginalized. In the process, Jesus has been transformed from a poor Galilean into a tycoon.

Pope Francis

Pope Francis reconnects us with Saint Francis of Assisi and with the biblical roots of catholic social teaching. He teaches us that nature is not something separate from us and that its components are not objects to abuse, but our brothers and sisters. Nature is part of us. When we hurt it, we impoverish our own lives. The foundation of God’s plan is unity. As there is unity in the Trinity so there is unity in creation, and the natural ecology and the human ecology are one. Without minimizing the importance of institutional changes and policy initiatives, Pope Francis suggests that a long-term solution to the crisis of the natural and human ecology requires a radical personal conversion to a new way of life that shuns materialism and selfishness, embraces simplicity and humility, and seeks justice and the common good.  

Conclusion

I now summarize the main findings from the review of the body of catholic social teaching in two steps. The first step summarizes the three relationships that form the foundations of catholic social teaching: man with God, man with nature, and man with neighbor and with society. The second step discusses the principles that would underly a policy program consistent with the social teaching of the Church.

Relationships

Man and God. The relationship between man and God is the foundation of all human activity. Life proceeds from God and is destined to return to Him. God’s love, when we open our hearts to it, powers our behavior and creates an inclination to love our neighbor and all creation and a desire to commit our lives to the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth.  

Man and Nature. For most of the history of Catholicism there was little mention of environmental issues probably because until modern times the pollution produced by human activity was not severe enough to endanger the health of the environment and of human beings. With the exception of Saint Francis of Assisi, catholic social teaching up to Pope Benedict XVI supported an anthropocentric view of the world. Inspired by Saint Francis, Pope Francis brought environmental issues to the fore. He went beyond the duty of man to take care of nature and eliminated Saint Thomas’ ranking order of creation, elevating nature to the same level of man and recognizing the twin issues of natural ecology and human ecology and the inextricable link between them. Following Pope Francis, we can safely say that restoring a healthy relationship between man and nature requires a paradigm shift from an egocentric to an ecocentric view of the world.   

Man and Society. The relationship among individuals is an extension of the connection between man and God. This means that even when we act in our interest we must take into account the effects of our actions on others. In economic terms, we internalize negative externalities in order to avoid injuring our neighbor and reducing the welfare of society. In the relationship between persons and society, the dominant principle is that of Saint Thomas Aquinas’s distributive justice which requires that every organization, from family to the State, must take care of all its members in a fair manner.

Principles

In this section I summarize the main principles of catholic social teaching derived from the sources reviewed in the preceding chapters.     

1.Man is the center of all human activity, not as the Lord of creation but as kin to nature. Because he is a child of God, man has inherent dignity and inalienable rights, including life, freedom, ownership of private property, and membership in associations of mutual support and spiritual growth.

2.Man finds fulfillment through work which generates benefits to both individuals and society. He has the right to a living income for himself and his family through work, to healthy working conditions, and sufficient financial support after retirement.

3.The purpose of the economic system is not to generate wealth that is appropriated by the few, but to create job opportunities for the capable and willing. It is the responsibility of government, in coordination with business and labor organizations, to support a macroeconomic structure that offers high and stable levels of employment. Government policies should follow the principle of subsidiarity which implies that the central government should not take over activities that can be more effectively performed by lower levels of government or private organizations.

Catholic social teaching has served for centuries as the pillar of Western civilization and offers a complete and durable alternative to the three “isms”: communism, socialism, and capitalism. The shortcomings of communism and socialism were stressed by Pope Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum and by Pope Pius XI in Quadragesimo Anno which also highlighted some inconsistencies between capitalism and Catholicism. Both communism and socialism have fatal flaws because they interfere with the rights of people to own private property, curtail personal freedom, and above all fail to acknowledge the spiritual nature of man. Thus, they fail to establish societies that nurture the full development of human beings in safety and freedom. By contrast, the principles of catholic social teaching -  personal responsibility, the duty to take care of nature, the universal destination of goods, the rejection of greed and wealth accumulation, the inherent dignity of man, his right to earn a living income through work and to full human development, the condemnation of consumerism, the obligation to share our possessions with the needy, the priority of the common good over personal gain �" serve as the foundations of a just society.

Over the past half a century, the influence of catholic social teaching has waned as “cultural wars”, heightened individualism, and a view of the gospels as recipes for financial success have replaced the principles of moderation, detachment from the material side of life, and solidarity. The results of this shift are the neglect of the environment, the erosion of workers’ rights, the excessive concentration of income and wealth, the rising incidence of the working poor, and the demise of civic institutions.

I argue that it is time for Catholics �" both lay people, the clergy, and the religious orders �" to revisit the foundations of our faith and revalue the message of the social traditions of the Church. As a first step, following Pope Pius XI and acknowledging the evolution of the market economy, it is crucial to recognize that, according to the social teachings of the Church, capitalism is fundamentally incompatible with Catholicism on various levels. Catholic social teaching places at the top a living, loving God who offers mankind a guide for building societies where peace, harmony between man and nature and among people, and justice prevail. In God’s plan, man is the subject of all human activities as his purpose is to be His agent in building God’s kingdom on earth. In this position, man has inherent dignity and unalienable rights to life, freedom, earning a living income through work, and developing his potential as a full human being possessing emotional, intellectual, and spiritual needs, in addition to the requirements for physical survival. As the apex of God’s creation, man has also inescapable responsibilities: to befriend nature, to be productive, to show moderation in all things, to share with the needy without making moral judgments, to lead a virtuous life, and to seek justice. It is through the discharge of these duties that man fulfills his destiny as God’s agent on earth.   

With capitalism, the living God is replaced by an anonymous and amoral market, and the primacy of man by the worship of efficiency. In this economic system, man is no longer the subject of all human activity, but is reduced to a common factor of production and a consuming machine. While capitalism does not prevent human activities aimed at the fulfillment of emotional, intellectual, and spiritual needs, it considers them useless and sometimes counterproductive. Human beings are valued only in coins, the profits that the many with their work can generate for the few through the production of goods and their consumption. The exclusive focus on the material side of life strips man of his humanity. The rich are dehumanized by their boundless greed, the poor by the lack of basic necessities, and those in the middle by the hidden desire to be rich. In this environment, greed befriends envy and both destroy the soul. The success of capitalism requires not only dehumanized humans, but permanent dissatisfaction. Only by losing interest in the latest gadget purchased in the expectation of the new and improved version can consumption keep up with the growth in production. In this state of permanent dissatisfaction, people keep chasing ever expanding expectations, trying to fill their chasm of emptiness unaware that the more they cling to their yearning for material things the deeper the chasm becomes. In this environment it is difficult to find a purpose in life, and the aimless earthly journey produces anxiety, depression, and even psychosis. The dynamics of capitalism are cruel and inescapable: rising concentration of wealth and economic power, expanding masses of people who live hand to mouth, the fusion of economic and political power, and the demise of the democratic institutions created to protect the weak, the helpless, and the dispossessed. Although the market is amoral, capitalism has its own set of values, primary among them the insatiable lust for power and wealth and inordinate consumerism. For catholic social teaching, these are sins. 

The amorality of the market is extended to business leaders and politicians. The market needs leaders who are capable of squeezing profits out of natural resources, technology, and human labor without regard for the effects of their actions on nature and others. The best leaders are those who are unencumbered by a conscience and are addicted to power and wealth. In theory, politicians are supposed to serve as a buffer between the unfettered market and the general population, serving the common good and not personal interests. Such political leaders would be anathema to the market. Capitalism needs politicians whose primary objective is holding on to power at all costs and whose value system is malleable. As economic power becomes increasingly concentrated, it offers greater opportunities for a symbiotic relationship with policymakers, and the common good is replaced by the interest of capitalists. In democracies this process is aided by the weakening moral fiber of individuals. In societies where the majority of the voting population is hateful of the other and driven by selfishness and unbounded materialism, children will be imbued with the same values which shapes their moral compass as leaders. Moreover, voters will elect representatives that support their interests, accelerating the process of moral decay.           

Catholic social teaching offers an escape from this dehumanizing vicious circle by restoring the dignity of man and by promoting and defending universal and unalienable human rights. Catholic social teaching is not just spiritually and morally up-lifting and empowering, it is also practical. Its principles of distributive justice, the universal destination of goods, subsidiarity, and personal responsibility towards nature and neighbor, serve as resilient foundations for personal fulfillment, sustainable progress, social harmony, and justice for all. The social teaching of the Church has enduring power because its foundations come from God and its strength from the faithfulness of virtuous people. The cornerstone of catholic social teaching is not economic man; it is moral man. A strong moral foundation and a commitment to the common good are the pre-requisite for leadership.   

The Bible shows the power of the faithful individual. It took a single righteous man (Noah) to assuage God’s wrath and prevent the extinction of humankind, and only ten righteous men were sufficient to spare Sodom and Gomorrah from destruction. The social doctrine of the Church teaches us that our calling is not to be heroes or successful people, but to be faithful to God’s commandments, always loving in anything we do, gentle, meek, caring, generous, compassionate, peace-loving, and justice-seeking because by doing so we follow in the footsteps of Jesus and become worthy partners in building God’s kingdom on earth.